Religious
Interpretations of Near-Death Experiences by
Dr. David San Filippo
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Dr. David
San Filippo
is a licensed mental health counselor,
a certified disability management specialist,
and a certified cognitive behavioral
specialist who has been working in human
services for more than 25 years. His
counseling and consulting service specializes
in helping adults overcome issues related
to personal development, trauma, grief,
and vocational rehabilitation. His intellectual
properties company deals with human
and artificial intelligence by combining
the collective knowledge of human intelligence
and dynamics with modern computer technology
to produce software products designed
to enhance people's personal and work
lives. His educational products consist
of the workshops and seminars that Dr.
San Filippo offers for human growth
and development. His website contains
a library section which is an outstanding
resource for general research in human
science in the areas of philosophy,
psychology, sociology and theology.
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| 1. Abstract |
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Interpretations of near-death
experiences are influenced by religious and psychosocial
teachings about death and afterlife beliefs. Different religious
beliefs have resulted in the formation of numerous religious
groups who have fostered their own interpretations of death
and afterlife. The immediate transition period between life
and afterlife. This essay provides an overview of reductionist
theories and for the plausibility of transpersonal theories
of near-death experiences. The essay then provides an overview
of the human consciousness of what seems to be life after
death, religious beliefs concerning death and afterlife,
and interpretations of near-death experiences by different
religious groups. This essay contends that religious interpretations
combined with the contemporary work on near-death experiences
and the arguments against reductionism provide grounds for
the plausibility of the transpersonal theories concerning
near-death experiences. |
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| 2. Introduction |
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 A
near-death experience is a conscious experience in which
the individual experiences a sense of being detached from
the physical world during the process of physiological dying.
Individuals may experience their own physiological dyings
and deaths and at the same time become aware of their disembodied
existences in an altered state where they may experience
a sense of peace, a separation of consciousness from the
body, entering darkness, seeing a light, meeting spiritual
entities, having a panoramic life review, and a sense of
judging their lives (Moody,
1975;
Morse, 1990,
Ring, 1980).
Near-death experiencers are generally positively affected
by their experiences and their confrontation with death
seems to give more meaning to the individual's life (Kalish,
1981). Near-death experiences
could be considered "transpersonal" experiences
due to their nature of transcending the usual "personal"
physical and mental realms of human consciousness. Transpersonal
experiences are those incidents that are of the highest
or ultimate human potential and beyond the ego or personal
self (Lajoie &
Shapiro, 1992, p. 90).
In order to evaluate near-death
experiences effectively, it is necessary to have an understanding
of personal beliefs concerning life after death. According
to Kellehear & Irwin (1990),
the interpretation of the near-death experience may be related
to the social conditioning and beliefs of the experiencer,
such as interpreting the experience in relationship to the
experiencer's religious beliefs concerning life after death.
Numerous surveys have documented
that the majority of people in the United States believe
in life after death (Kalish,
1981;
Kellehear & Irwin, 1990;
Klenow & Bolin, 1989,
Rodabough, 1985).
Psychologist
Charles Tart
(1991),
in his article, "Altered States of Consciousness and
the Possibility of Survival of Death", discusses his
belief that humans regain some type of consciousness after
death. He states, "The direct experience of existing
and experiencing in some form that seems partially or fully
independent of the physical body is relatively common in
various altered states of consciousness, and this kind of
experience constitutes the most direct knowledge of survival
an individual may have" (p. 37). Past-life researcher
Brian Weiss
(1988)
reports there are experiences of what seems to be life after
death, as reported by many of his subjects, and that the
different experiences and concepts of the subject's lifetime,
involving religion and death, can influence the individual's
understanding of death and afterlife.
Religions involve group practices
of similar religious beliefs. An individual's personal religious
beliefs are experienced within the individual's consciousness
and may be related to others through various religious practices.
Through social participation individual beliefs may be formed
and heightened. Religious beliefs may both provide explanations
for unexplained phenomena and communicate the essence of
human transpersonal experiences.
Interpretations
of near-death experiences can be influenced by religious
beliefs in life after death. The effects of religious diversity
may not only influence the interpretations of near-death
experiences but also may account for some of the differences
in the descriptions of encounters with incorporeal entities,
the setting of the experience, and in the activities reported
during the experience. Religious beliefs can provide references
to explain the "difficult to explain" experiences
associated with a near-death experience (Foos-Graber,
1989;
Kubler-Ross, 1991;
Moody, 1975,
1977,
1988;
Ring, 1980,
1982).
Most reported near-death experiences appear to support many
philosophical and religious theories of what is anticipated
in life after death such as communion with incorporeal beings
and the existence of afterlife polar planes of good and
bad, heaven and hell.
It is the intention of this essay
to provide a review of the near-death experience phenomenon
and the beliefs in life after death of some religious denominations
who have reported near-death experiences, as well as their
interpretations of these experiences. The essay will conclude
that these religious interpretations, combined with contemporary
near-death research, and arguments against reductionist
interpretations provide grounds for the plausibility of
transpersonal theories concerning near-death experiences. |
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| 3. Near-Death
Experiences |
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 Near-death
experiences appear to be a universal phenomena that has
been reported for centuries. A near-death encounter is defined
as an event in which the individual could very easily die
or be killed, or may have already been considered clinically
dead, but nonetheless survives, and continue his or her
physical life (Moody,
1977, p.124). Reports
of near-death experiences date back to the Ice Age. There
are cave paintings, in France and Spain, depicting possible
after life scenes that are similar to reported scenes related
to near-death experiences (Zaleski,
1987). Plato's Republic
presents the story of a near-death experience of a Greek
soldier named
Er.
In this account, the soldier is killed in battle and his
body is placed on a funeral pyre. Just before he is to be
cremated, he awakens and tells a story of leaving his body
and traveling with others to a place where they were all
to be judged (Plato,
1928). Historical figures
such as
Carl Jung,
Thomas Edison, and Ernest Hemingway have also reported their
own near-death experiences (Jung,
1961;
Moody, 1977,
Zaleski, 1987).
Modern researchers, such as
Elisabeth Kubler-Ross,
Raymond Moody,
Kenneth Ring,
and
Melvin Morse,
have provided modern accounts of near-death experiences.
Through their research, they have been able to provide phenomenological
evidence regarding these experiences as altered states of
consciousness, and qualitatively demonstrated that the great
similarities between the different reports of these experiences
are not a result of chance or accident.
According
to a 1991 Gallup Poll estimate, 13 million Americans, 5%
of the population, reported they have had a near-death experience
(Greyson,
1992). Research has
demonstrated that near-death experiences are no more likely
to affect the devoutly religious than the agnostic or atheist.
Near-death experiences can be experienced by anyone (Moody,
1975,
1977,
1980,
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1980,
1985).
According to Talbot (1991),
near-death experiences appear to have no relationship to "a
person's age, sex, marital status, race, religion and/or
spiritual beliefs, social class, educational level, income,
frequency of church attendance, size of home community,
or area of residence" (p. 240).
Near-death
experiences have been recorded in folklore, religious, and
social writings throughout the world. Reports have been
recorded from societies such as Native American, Tibet,
Japan, Melanesia, Micronesia, Egypt, China, India, Africa,
Australia, Europe, and the United States (Greyson,
1992;
Mauro, 1992).
According to Ring (1980),
there does not appear to be any relationship between, on
one hand, an individual's spirituality and religious practices,
and on the other hand, the likelihood of experiencing a
near-death experience or the depth of the ensuing experience. |
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| 4. The
Phenomenology of the Near-Death Experience |
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 Near-death
experiencer consistently report similar experiences. According
to Talbot (1991), "One
of the most interesting aspects of the ND phenomenon is
the consistency one finds from experience to experience"
(p. 240). Although most near-death experiencers may not
experience all of the traits associated with near-death
experiences or in the same order, experiencers consistently
report similar experiences. The following is a constructed
description of the content of a near-death experience representing
most of the major traits:
At the onset of the near-death
experience, the individual may experience a sense of being
dead, and surprise at being dead, yet will remain peaceful
and have no feelings of pain. Following the peaceful awareness
of being dead, the experiencer may have an out-of-body experience,
a perception of separating from the physical body and moving
away from the deceased body. The individual may experience
a sense of moving through a tunnel, during the stage of
entering into the darkness. As the individual passes through
the tunnel, there may be an awareness of a bright light
towards the end of the tunnel. While experiencing the consciousness
of the light, ethereal forms recognizable by the experiencer
may be seen in the light. In the later part of the near-death
experience, the individual may sense he or she is rising
rapidly towards the light into what he or she may consider
heaven or another plane of consciousness. During this ascension,
the experiencer may encounter a Being of Light reported
to be either God, another spiritual deity, or an energy
form recognized by non-theists. The encounter with the Being
of Light engulfs the experiencer with a sense of unconditional
love emanating from the Being. During this encounter, the
near-death experiencer may become conscious of having a
total panoramic review of his or her life and may experience
a sense of self-judgment when observing his or her life
events in review. The judgment is not by the Being of Light
but is a personal judgment by the experiencer. Throughout
each of the stages, and particularly in the latter stages
of the near-death experience, the individual may be reluctant
to return to his or her former life.
Although
most near-death reports are positive, in that they are pleasurable
experiences, there are some reports of negative or "hellish"
type experiences. The reports of negative near-death experiences
appear to be rare. Of all the reported near-death experiences,
a 1982 Gallup poll estimated that less than 1% are considered
to be negative, hellish, and frightening experiences. The
negative near-death experiences are reported to contain
similar traits as positive experiences but are associated
with a sense of extreme fear, panic or anger, a sense of
helplessness, and possible visions of demonic creatures
(Moody,
1988, p.25, 27; Staff,
1992 p. 1-2; Horacek, 1992, p. 3).
Many
individuals who have experienced a near-death experience
claim a fuller understanding of their religious or spiritual
insights and their impact on their lives (Moody,
1988;
Peay, 1991;
Ring, 1985).
They report feeling closer to God after their near-death
experience. Ring (1980)
comments: The way in which post-incident religiousness reveals
itself among core experiencers is primarily in terms of
an inward sense of religion: They feel closer to God, are
more prayerful, are less concerned with organized religion
and formal ritual, and express a sense of religious tolerance
and religious universalism. It isn't clear that their belief
in God per se grows stronger, although it is clear their
religious feeling does. Following their incident, they are
significantly more inclined then non-experiencers to be
convinced there is life after death (p.173). The effect
of this spiritual awakening on the experiencer is a more
positive attitude towards life, a lack of fear of dying,
and a sense of service towards others (Moody,
1977,
1980,
1988;
Ring, 1980,
1985). |
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| 5. Models
of Near-Death Experiences |
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 The
phenomenology of the near-death experience can be described
by reporting the various stages of the experience, the characteristics
or traits of the experience - which occur during various
stages of the experience, by the constellations or related
conscious experiences associated with near-death experiences,
or by the experiential grouping of stages, traits, or constellations
of the experiences. Experiencers may experience some or
all of these stages, traits, consciousness, and types. The
stages of near-death experiences relate to the experiencer's
sense of progression towards a destination. The traits are
associated with a sense of consciousness or knowledge concerning
the activities within the near-death experience. Noyes and
Slymen (1978-79)
and Sabom (1977)
further categorize the stages and traits of near-death experiencers
into constellations and group types to analyze further the
phenomenology of the near-death experience. The statistical
analysis of the data presented in the Ring (1980,
1985),
Evergreen (Lindley,
1981), and Noyes and
Slymen (1978-79)
studies, and the research of Sabom (1977)
demonstrate the consistency of these models of classification
of near-death experiences.
Kenneth
Ring (1980)
has devised a model of the stages of near-death experiences
recognized by near-death experiencers. The stages are: |
Stages of the
Near-Death Experience
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1. |
A sense of peace at the time of
death. |
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2. |
A sense of separation from the body. |
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3. |
A sense of entering into darkness. |
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4. |
Seeing a bright light. |
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5. |
A sense of entering the light |
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Raymond Moody (1988),
identifies nine distinguishing qualities, characteristics
or traits that have been associated with near-death experiences
and may be perceived within the stages of the near-death
experiences identified by the Ring study. The Moody defined
near-death experience traits are: |
Distinguishing
Qualities and Characteristics of the NDE
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1. |
A sense
of being dead. |
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2. |
A sense
of peace and painlessness. |
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3. |
A sense
of separation from the physical
body. |
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4. |
The sense
of passing through a tunnel. |
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5. |
A sense
of an encounter with recognizable
ethereal entities, such as family,
friends, angels or religious personages.
These spirits may appear to be enveloped
in light. |
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6. |
A sense
of rising rapidly into the heavens. |
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7. |
A sense
of an encounter with a Being of
Light which emanates unconditional
love. This being has been described
as God or Allah. |
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8. |
An experience
of a panoramic, total life review
and sense of self-judgment about
one's life while bathed in the unconditional
love of the Being of Light. |
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9. |
A sense
of reluctance to return to the world
of the living. |
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10. |
A sense
of a compression or absence of time
and sensing no restrictions of space
but a freedom to go where the experiencer
chooses. |
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According
to a study performed by Noyes and Slymen (1978-79),
near-death experiences can be classified further into three
consciousness constellations of the type of event: mystical,
depersonalized, and hyperalert. The mystical type includes
a sense of harmony and unity, color or visions, and a feeling
of great understanding. Depersonalization relates to the
loss of emotion, detachment from the physical body, and
an altered sense of the passage of time. The hyperalert
constellation refers to the experiencer's sense that his
or her thoughts are sharply defined, vivid, and accelerated.
Sabom (1977)
also has divided near-death experiencers into three experiential
group types: autoscopic, transcendental, and mixed experiences.
The autoscopic experiencers include the individuals who
have experienced the sense of leaving their bodies, having
out-of-body experiences. The transcendental group include
individuals who have a sense of entering into a "spiritual
realm". In the mixed experiences, the near-death experiencer
may experience a mixture of autoscopic and transcendental
experiences (Moody,
1988). Regardless of
the methodology used to classify near-death experiences,
the anecdotal nature of the near-death reports are similar
and consistent between experiencers (Moody,
1977,
1988;
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1980,
1985). |
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6. Transpersonal and
Reductionist Theories Concerning Near-Death Experiences |
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 Near-death
researchers Moody (1975,
1977,
1988), Morse (1990),
and Ring (1980,
1985) suggest that near-death experiences are related
to a state of consciousness, separate from the physical
body, which occurs at the time of death. Near-death researchers
have collected hundreds of phenomenological descriptions
of individual near-death experiences and have statistically
correlated the occurrences of the stages and traits associated
with these experience. The consistency of near-death experience
reports provide support for the theories that these experiences
are not a result of hallucinations or mental dysfunctions.
Individuals, regardless, of age, race, religion, or national
origin have reported similar experiences during a near-death
episode. The chi-square method of statistical analysis has
been used by near-death researchers to determine if the
similarity of events reported during the \near-death experience,
by experiencer, are a result of chance or are to be expected
elements of the near-death experience (Morse,
1990, Ring,
1980,
1985). The chi-square method is a non-parametric statistical
test used to determine the statistical significance of the
difference between the frequencies of reported outcomes
with the expected frequencies of outcomes. In other words,
did the events reported in near-death experiences happen
by chance or can the events anticipated (Borg & Gall,
1989). The statistical significance of near-death research
provides that the similarity in the reports of near-death
experiencer do not happen as a result of chance but are
consistent phenomena of the near-death experiencers (Morse,
1990; Ring,
1980,
1985, Rodabough,
1985; Sabom & Kreutziger,
1977).
Some
theologians, medical practitioners, and psychologists do
not believe near-death experiences are paranormal experiences.
According to Moody (1988),
some theological, medical, and psychological theorists attempt
to explain near-death experiences as physical or mental
phenomena that has more to do with brain and neurological-biological
dysfunctions associated with the dying process.
Researchers
such as Sagan (1979)
and Siegel (1981)
attempt to debunk the near-death experience by stating it
is a result of a chemical reaction within the brain during
the dying process. They postulate that as the eyes deteriorate
following death they produce the bright light reported to
be seen during the near-death experience. The tunnel effect
and a sensation of being out-of-body is believed to be caused
by the chemical reactions in the body during the death process
(Moody,
1988, p.178). According to researcher Ronald Siegel
(1981), "The
descriptions given by dying persons are virtually identical
to descriptions given by persons experiencing hallucinations,
drug-induced or otherwise," (p. 65). Carl Sagan (1979)
states that some of the near-death experiences can be associated
with "a wiring defect in the human neuroanatomy that
under certain conditions always leads to the same illusion
of astral projection/out-of-body experience," (p. 47).
According to Moody (1988)
and Morse (1990),
some researchers attempt to explain near-death experiences
as the mind's defense against the fear of dying, that the
mind creates positive images of an afterlife in order to
control the fear of dying.
Many
near-death researchers regard three consistently repeated
reports as providing credibility for the transpersonal theories
that near-death experiences are the expression of an altered
state of consciousness separate from the physical or mental
realm of human existence having a profound impact on the
experiencer's life. These reports thus are crucial to cite
in responding to the theorists who attempt to debunk the
near-death experience as a transpersonal phenomenon. These
three factors reported are: |
Reports That
Provide Credibility for
the Transpersonal
Theory of the NDE |
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1. |
Consistent reports of out-of-body
experiences of individuals who sense
they separate from their physical
body during the near-death experience
and can observe their body and surroundings
from a detached position.
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2. |
The consistent reports of near-death
experiences of children are similar
to those experiences reported by
adults.
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3. |
The attitudinal
and personality changes of the near-death
experiencers following their experience
(Moody,
1988;
Morse,
1990;
Ring,
1980,
1985).
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following discussion of out-of-body experiences,
children's near-death experiences, and the
post-experience attitudinal and personality
changes of near-death experiencers, suggest
reasons why the reductionist or debunking
theories are implausible. |
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| 7. Out-Of-Body
Experiences |
| |
 During
an out-of-body experience, experiencers report leaving their
physical body and viewing their body and other activity
from a detached, uninvolved perspective. Upon recovery from
the near-death experience, many experiencers recall details
of medical procedures being performed on them that they
had no prior knowledge of the technique. Some experiencers
report traveling to other locations, other than the place
where the body may be lying "dead." The out-of-body
experiencer is then able to report things he or she may
have seen during the out-of-body experience, and there is
no other logical explanation for the source of this knowledge
(Eadie,
1992;
Moody, 1988;
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1980,
1985;
Ritchie, 1978;
Zaleski, 1987).
An example of this experience is a story told by a very
near-sighted woman. During her out-of-body experience, she
reports that she was first lying on an operating table with
the anesthesia machine behind her head. She then became
aware that she had detached from her body and was able to
see, without difficulty, the equipment identification numbers
on the anesthesia machine. These numbers were out of her
normal visual range and behind her body's head. She then
floated up to the top of the room and noted how the top
of the light fixtures were dirty. After her recovery from
her near-death experience, she returned to the operating
room and was able to ascertain that the numbers she had
seen on the machine were correct and that the light fixtures
were in need of cleaning (Ring,
1985, p. 42-43). This
experience supports the belief that near-death experiences
involve separation from the physical body and mind.
Studying the out-of-body phenomenon
leads to doubt about the beliefs of those who attempt to
debunk the theory that near-death experiences are transpersonal
experiences transcending the physical and mental realm of
human consciousness. The knowledge the experiencer gains
during the out-of-body experience, in most cases, could
not have been learned by any other method other than by
a consciousness detached from the physical body (Moody,
1988;
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1980,
1985).
The ability of experiencers to report things and events
they had no prior knowledge of provides for the plausibility
that the out-of-body experience is a transpersonal event
and not a psychological response to dying. |
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| 8. Children
and Near-Death Experiences |
| |
 Young
children have reported having near-death experiences. Their
reports are similar to adult near-death experiences even
though they may not have had time to be enculturated with
the same socio-religious beliefs regarding death as adults,
or developed a fear of death through their psychological
development. Children report having out-of-body experiences,
passing through a tunnel, and encountering spiritual forms
during their near-death experiences. Of interest are the
reports of children who meet spiritual entities that are
later identified as deceased relatives whom the child could
not have known prior to his or her near-death experience
(Moody,
1975,
1988,
Morse, 1990).
The accounts of young children's
near-death experiences suggest the unlikeliness of the debunking
theory that near-death experiences are the mind's psychological
defense towards dying. Children who have not had time to
learn of their mortality do not usually fear dying. According
to Frank (1982)
and Anthony (1967)
children, until between the age of five and seven, consider
death to be reversible and generally do not have a fear
of dying. They, therefore, do not have a need to create
an afterlife experience, such as is experienced in a near-death
experience, in order to overcome a fear of dying (Moody,
1988;
Morse, 1990).
Furthermore, following near-death experiences, children
share similar after-effects of the experience as adult experiencers.
They grow to have a sense of purpose and direction in their
lives, and as they mature, do not develop a fear of dying
(Morse,
1990). |
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| 9. Attitudinal
and Personality Changes Following Near-Death Experiences |
| |
According
to Wilson (1987),
the real importance of the near-death experience is in the
after-effects it has on the life of the experiencer. The
usual psychological and spiritual after-effects of a near-death
experience consist of changes in personality and values
and an attitudinal change towards religion and death. There
is a heightened sense of appreciation of life, especially
of the world of nature and of other people. The near-death
experiencer achieves a sense of understanding of what is
important to him or her in life and strives to live in accordance
with his or her understanding of what is meaningful. Consistently
reported after-effects of near-death experiences are the
lack of fear of death, an attitude of unconditional love
and service towards others, and the desire to seek knowledge
(Kalish,
1981,
Moody, 1977,
1988;
Peay, 1991;
Ring, 1980).
According to Ring (1985),
many near-death experiences act as a catalyst to a spiritual
awakening for the experiencer: What is noteworthy ... is
the particular form this spiritual development takes in
many NDErs - i.e., the real significance of the NDE here
may not be simply that it promotes spiritual growth as much
as the kind of spiritual growth it promotes (p. 144). This
awakening appears to move the experiencer toward what Ring
(1985)
calls a "universalistically spiritual orientation"
(p. 145). He defines universalistically spiritual orientation
as consisting of: |
Definition of
Universalistic Spiritual Orientation
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1. |
A tendency to characterize oneself
as spiritual rather than religious,
per se. |
|
2. |
A feeling of being inwardly close
to God. |
|
3. |
A de-emphasis of the formal aspects
of religious life and worship. |
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4. |
A conviction that there is life
after death, regardless of religious
belief. |
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5. |
An openness to the doctrine of reincarnation
(and a general sympathy towards
eastern religions). |
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6. |
A belief in the essential underlying
unity of all religions. |
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7. |
A desire for a universal religion
embracing all humanity (p. 146). |
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The
long-term positive effects the near-death experience has
on the experiencer's life gives evidence for supporting
a plausible argument for the transpersonal nature of the
near-death experience. This aspect of the near-death experience
has not been addressed by reductionist theories in the literature
reviewed. The profundity of the after-effects of a near-death
experience on the experiencer's life have not been able
to be achieved through pharmacological or psychological
methods. Most of the sensory nature of the near-death experience
can be induced through drugs or hallucinations but the positive
change in the individual's personality and attitudes do
not appear to be capable of replication (Moody,
1988;
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1985).
Ring (1980)
reports these after-effects appear to remain with the individual
for the remainder of his or her mortal life.
In the
first part of this essay, I have reviewed some of the contemporary
near-death research and some of the arguments against the
plausibility of the reductionist theories and for the plausibility
to transpersonal theories explaining near-death experiences.
In the following part of this essay, religious beliefs concerning
death, afterlife, and near-death experiences will be discussed.
This discussion will provide commentary regarding the similarities
between different religious beliefs and experiences concerning
death, as well as between religious interpretations of near-death
experiences. |
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| 10.
Religious Beliefs Concerning Death, Afterlife, and
Near-Death Experiences |
| |
 Polls
and studies support the assumption that the majority of
people believe death is not the end of one's existence but
rather a transition from one life to another (Gallup &
Castelli, 1989;
Kellehear & Irwin, 1990;
Klenow & Bolin, 1989).
Different religions have provided belief structures supporting
the religious and social needs of practitioners. Rituals
and sacred writings support the various religious interpretations
of what death is and what it will be like in the afterlife.
However, even with the differences in religious beliefs,
there are similarities between many different religious
groups regarding afterlife beliefs. One similarity among
religious groups is the belief in an afterlife following
physical death. Another similarity is the presence of "the
two polar images of life after death - the abode of the
righteous, heaven or paradise, and the place for the wicked,
or hell" (Grof &
Grof, 1980, p. 13).
These polar images are also recognized by many near-death
experiencers.
According to Hick (1980),
a belief in the immortality of the spirit has been present
in most religions for centuries. The belief in a life after
death is one of the oldest concepts of human history (DeSpelder &
Strickland, 1983).
Proving the immortality of the human soul has been the objective
of many philosophers, theologians, and scientists. Freud
(1961)
stated, "Our own death is indeed unimaginable, and
whenever we make an attempt to imagine it we can perceive
that we really survive as spectators." Hence the psychoanalytic
school could venture on the assertion that, at bottom, no
one believes in his own death. Or to put it in another way,
in the unconscious everyone is convinced of his or her own
immortality (p. 154). Many beliefs in life after death have
concerned a non-physical transition into a serene spiritual
world with encounters of other deceased people and possible
religious figures. There may be a judgment or accounting
of one's life with a final disposition of the individual
spirit following the period of judgment or personal assessment.
Near-death
experiences and the reports of a consciousness of life after
death have been provided by members of Buddhist, Hindu,
Islam, Jewish, Christian, and Mormon religions, among others.
Agnostics and atheists also have reported near-death experiences
even with their predisposed lack of belief in anything greater
than personal self and this life. The following are brief
commentaries regarding the beliefs concerning death, afterlife,
and near-death experiences within these religious and
irreligious
frameworks. |
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| 11.
Agnostics and Atheists |
| |
 Agnostics
believe it is impossible to know whether there is a God
or life after death. Atheists believe there is no God and
no life after death and that death is the cessation of the
existence of the individual.
Agnostics
and atheists have reported having near-death experiences.
These experiences are similar to the reports of individuals
who have professed a spiritual belief prior to their near-death
experience (Moody,
1977;
Rawlings, 1978;
Ring, 1985).
Agnostics and atheists report achieving an altered state
of consciousness in which they have experienced some or
all of the traits Moody attributes to a near-death experience.
Most agnostics and atheists interpret their near-death experiences
as a glimpse of life after death (Rawlings,1978;
Ring, 1985).
Prior to the near-death experience, they did not believe
in life after death. As a result of the experience, most
agnostic and atheist experiencers eventually move toward
a more spiritually guided life with a new found belief in
life after death (Rawlings,
1978;
Ring, 1985, p. 151).
Maurice Rawlings (1978)
reported he did not know of any agnostic or atheist individual
from his research who, after experiencing a near-death experience,
remained convinced of there being no God, no life after
death, or nothing else beyond the material existence. |
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| 12.
Buddhism and Hinduism |
| |
|
 Buddhists
believe that upon death, there is rebirth to another life.
Death is accepted as inevitable and not feared. The believer's
actions in this life will determine his or her level of
rebirth. Karma is the force created by the actions of the
individual - the effects of actions. Good karma, which is
achieved by compassionate actions in this life, leads to
a higher existence in the next life. Nirvana is reached
by achieving an understanding of the nature of reality.
This must be discovered through the experiences of other
dimensions of human consciousness (Klein,
1991, p. 103).
According to Buddhist cosmology,
numerous, hierarchically arranged heavens exist along with
eight hot and cold hells. The individual spirit exists in
one of these realms, based upon the karma created in the
previous life, until reborn into another life. This cycle
continues until the enlightenment of nirvana is achieved
(Klein,
1991).
According to Swami Adiswarananda
(1991),
in the Hindu religion, death comes as a break in the continued
events of life and brings about a change in the form in
which the spirit resides. Hindus believe the afterlife is
a passage of time in a heaven or hell, dependent upon the
karma built up in life. The judgment about one's life is
based upon the karma the individual created in his or her
past lives. The rebirth of the spirit into the next life,
through the transmigration of the soul, is determined by
the developed karma and the individual's last thoughts in
the present life. An individual's search for eternal happiness
and immortality results in the rebirth of the spirit in
different bodies until the spirit learns that happiness
and immortality are not a result of the fulfillment of desires
but are attained when all desires and needs are no longer
important (Adiswarananda,
1991;
Elb, 1906).
According to some Hindus, the various religious faiths are "different
paths to reach one and the same goal - union with God as
ultimate Reality" (Johnson &
McGee, 1991).
There are reports of Chinese Buddhists
having near-death experiences (Kellehear,
Heaven, Gao, 1990).
Becker (1981)
suggests that near-death experiences may have been responsible
for part of the development of Pure Land Buddhism in China.
A Hindu report of a near-death experience relates how the
experiencer entered into heaven on the back of a cow (Ferris,
1991).
According
to Mauro (1992), "East
Indians [Hindus] sometimes see heaven as a giant bureaucracy,
and frequently report being sent back because of clerical
errors," whereas Japanese experiencers report seeing
symbolic images, such as "long, dark rivers and beautiful
flowers" (p. 57). During the near-death experience,
the Buddhist experiencers have reported seeing the personage
of Buddha, and Hindu experiencers report seeing Krishna
(Rawlings,
1978;
Ring, 1980;
Talbot, 1991).
The difference in Buddhist and Hindu reports of near-death
experiences is predominately associated with the afterlife
setting and the personages the experiencer reports encountering.
Buddhist and Hindu near-death
experiencers may report different interpretations of the
specifics of their experiences; however, the experiences
are consistent with other stages, traits, constellations,
and group types reported by near-death experiencers in other
cultures and religions. Some members of the Buddhist and
Hindu religions interpret near-death experiences as providing
afterlife visions similar to visions ascribed to some Eastern
religious experiences associated with death and afterlife.
Becker (1984)
comments "that ancient Japanese Buddhist meditative
and deathbed visions closely parallel modern American near-death
and deathbed visions" (p. 51). The Tibetan Book of
the Dead (1973)
describes the Bardo, the three stages of the transitionary "disembodied
state" following death. In the first stage, the departed
have visions of the "Blinding Clear Light of Pure Reality."
In the second stage, the departed encounter a succession
of "deities." In the third stage the departed
is judged based upon past deeds by the "Dharma Raja,
King and Judge of the Dead" (Grof &
Grof, 1980). These
stages are similar in content to other reported near-death
experiences from other religions and cultures. These similarities
include a movement through levels - such as passing through
a tunnel, visions of pure light, meeting incorporeal beings,
powers of astral projections or out-of-body-experience,
and a judgment about one's life (Becker,
1985).
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| 13.
Islam |
| |
 Death,
in the Islamic faith, is the cessation of biological life
and the resting of the spirit, in the grave, until the Judgment
Day. Some Muslims believe "good souls" see visions
of God, and the wicked see the hell awaiting them. From
the time of death to the time of judgment, Muslims believe
the spirit remains in a state of "dreamless sleep,"
with the exception of possible visions of eternity (Galloway,
1991;
Johnson & McGee, 1991).
Faith in an afterlife is based
upon the belief in the oneness of God and the belief in
a day of resurrection and judgment for all regardless of
religious belief. At that time, the spirit will be judged
based upon its deeds in life, and allowed either to enter
into Paradise and be with God, be thrown into the Fire for
a period of purgation, or condemned to everlasting punishment
in the Fire. Most Muslims believe that non-Muslims can reach
Paradise only after a period of purgation (Johnson &
McGee, 1991;
Smith, J. 1991).
Muslims have reported having near-death
experiences (Flynn,
1986;
Rawlings, 1978).
Muslim near-death experiencers report seeing and meeting
recognizable spirits (Flynn,
1986;
Rawlings, 1978).
This conforms with the Islamic tradition that the souls
of the faithful, in paradise, welcome the "incoming
souls" and with other reports of visions of people
awaiting the newly deceased (Holck,
1980;
Moody, 1975,
1977;
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1985). In Muslim near-death experiences, the Being
of Light is identified as Allah, whereas in other religions
the light might be identified as God (Ring, 1985).
Some Muslims interpret the near-death
experience as a possible glimpse into life after death due
to the similarity of the experience with the religious visions
of Muhammad and their expectations of life after death (Ring,
1985;
Zaleski, 1987).
An Islamic myth describes Muhammad's "Night
Journey" as his
experience of passing through the realms of the afterlife
where he encounters spirits who have died, has a vision
of heaven and hell, and communes with Allah (Couliano,
1991;
Grof & Grof, 1980,
Zaleski, 1987). |
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| 14.
Judaism |
| |
 The
Jewish religion generally emphasizes the current life, and
not life after death. Although Judaism recognizes that the
life of the spirit does not end at the point of bodily death,
it is the Jew's responsibility to focus on a meaningful
life and not speculate on life after death. According to
Elb (1906),
the Jewish Bible states that actions taken in the present
life will reward the righteous and chastise the wicked.
It does not specifically address the concept of an afterlife.
Even though the Jewish Bible does not directly address immortality,
traditional Jews believe immortality will bring the resurrection
of the body and soul, followed by the judgment of the worth
of their lives by God. The Reformed Jew believes resurrection
involves only the soul. Jews believe they live and die only
once (Ponn,
1991).
Since there is no discussion,
in the Jewish Bible, of afterlife, there is no official
Jewish religious opinion regarding life after death. However,
according to Ponn (1991),
many Jews believe human souls will be held accountable before
God for what has been accomplished in the current life.
After death, many Jews believe they will be reunited with
family members in heaven. Their belief in God's caring nature
disavows a sadistic punishment in hell. Entrance into heaven
is accomplished by righteous living and repentance. Heaven
is considered a place where anxiety and pain is ended (Galloway,
1991;
Johnson & McGee, 1991).
There have been a number of reported
near-death experiences by members of the Jewish faith.
Barbara Harris,
a practicing Jew, reports having had several near-death
experiences since 1975. Harris and Bascom's (1990)
book,
Full Circle: The Near-Death Experience and Beyond, is
a narrative of Harris' near-death experiences. Jewish people
who had a near-death experience relate similar observations
and experiences as the experiences of other religious-spiritual
believers. During the near-death experience, individuals
report being in the presence of the Being of Light and judging
their own lives (Harris &
Bascom, 1990). This
experience is similar to the Jewish belief that what is
important in life is the attending to the responsibilities
of living a meaningful, productive life. Many near-death
experiencers report being met by family members. These reports
are consistent with the Jewish belief that after death they
will be reunited with family members in heaven (Galloway,
1991;
Johnson & McGee, 1991;
Moody, 1975,
1977,
1980;
Ring, 1980,
1985). |
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| 15.
Christianity |
|
 Modern
Christians are united in their belief that Jesus is the
son of God and that there is an afterlife. Upon death, Christians
believe they come before God and are judged. According to
Smith (1991), "Following
death, human life is fully translated into the supernatural
domain" (p. 355). Fundamentalists and conservatives
interpret the Holy Bible (1952)
literally and believe there is a specific heaven and hell
and only Christians are admitted to heaven. All others are
condemned to hell. Other Christians interpret Biblical scripture
more symbolically, taking into consideration the language
and culture of the time when the Bible was written. Heaven
and hell are viewed as a "condition," such as
happiness or peace, rather than a specific place. Regardless
of whether the afterlife beliefs are interpreted conservatively
or liberally, the Christian believes he or she dies only
once and, after death, the spirit is judged and then exists
in an afterlife for eternity (Galloway,
1991;
Johnson & McGee, 1991). "It
is appointed for men to die once, and after that comes judgment"
(Hebrews
9:27).
Near-death experiences appear
to be familiar paranormal occurrences to Christians. Bechtel,
Chen, Pierce, & Walker (1992)
reported that 98% of the clergy they surveyed were familiar
with near-death phenomena and that almost half of them have
counseled parishioners who had a near-death experience.
As with other religious interpretations of the near-death
experience, Christians also report encounters with religious
beings such as Jesus, Mary, or angels (Flynn,
1986,
Moody, 1977,
1988;
Morse, 1990,
Ring, 1980,
1985).
Experiencers report similar out-of-body experiences, meeting
recognizable spiritual entities, movement toward a bright
light, and a sense of being in the presence of an energy
of "unconditional love" while the experiencer
judges his or her life (Moody,
1975,
Morse, 1990).
Some Christians refute the near-death
experience as being a demonic deception. They believe the
entire near-death experience is a trick of Satan to pull
believers from the teachings of Christianity and lead them
into sin (Harpur, 1992). Other Christians interpret the
near-death experience as a glimpse of an after death state
that may exist prior to the afterlife judgment by God. Near-death
experiences and experiences similar to the altered state
of the near-death experiences are recorded in the Holy Bible
(1952).
These experiences are not reported as being evil or sinful.
The scripture writers have recorded visions of bright lights,
life reviews, the presence of the unconditional love of
God, and visions of heaven and hell from Biblical individuals
who have been close to death (Morse,
1990;
Rawlings, 1978).
In the Apostle Paul's letter to the Corinthians,
II Corinthians 12:1-10,
Paul records a "vision" he had. This vision resembles
the content of a near-death experience. It involved Paul
being "taken up to heaven for a visit" and "hear[ing]
things so astounding that they are beyond man's power to
describe or put in words." Near-death experiencers
consistently report the difficulty of verbalizing what they
experience. The effect of this experience, on Paul, was
a personal confirmation and assurance of his work (Hunter,
1985;
Living Bible, 1971).
According to Flynn (1986),
to many experiencers, "the near-death experience affirms
the uniqueness and centrality and indispensability of Christ,
but in a universalistic way that does not negate or diminish
the value of other religious traditions...[It will] break
through sectarian and other barriers and shine a laser beam
of Light on the true essence and meaning of Christ for all
people" (p. 80). Ring (1985)
supports Flynn's comments, in his conclusions regarding
the universalistically spiritual orientation of experiencers
following near-death experiences. He found that following
a near-death experience, the Christian experiencer "gravitated
towards a religious world view that may incorporate and
yet transcend the traditional Christian perspective"
(p. 147). |
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| 16.
Mormonism |
| |
 Death
in the Mormon religion is not considered to be the end of
existence of the individual but the beginning of a new existence
as the same person. Mormons believe they have always lived
and will always live as the same individual, "never
as someone else or in another life-form" (Eyre,
1991, p. 139). Members
of the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day Saints are
saddened by the death of a loved one but are comforted in
the belief that upon death the spirit is united with God
in a spirit world, continuing to progress in knowledge,
and await the coming of other family members, the resurrection
of the physical body, and the final judgment. A belief in
an afterlife is an essential part of the faith of the members
of the Church of the Latter-day Saints.
In Mormonism, only "sons
of perdition" - former believers who betray the church
- are destined for eternal punishment. All others are assured
at least an entry into a lesser Paradise, called the "telestial
kingdom," where one spends eternity apart from God.
The most faithful attain the "celestial kingdom,"
where they commune directly with God and eventually may
themselves become gods and populate new universes with their
own spiritual offspring. The Mormon Church is the only church
that has a "safety net." Any spirit that has not
heard the Gospel of Jesus Christ in life will, before Judgment
Day, will be given a chance in Paradise to hear it, and
if the spirit accepts the teachings, it will receive equal
blessings from God (Staff, 1992, p. 74).
The
judgment reported by Mormon near-death experiencers is essentially
a self-judgment. This self-judgment is similar to the reported
life reviews and self-judgment reported in near-death experiences.
Experiencers report seeing a panoramic review of their entire
life and then judge their own actions while awash in the "unconditional
love" of the Being of Light. After the judgment, the
spirit dwells with others most like it (Eyre,
1991). As with many
other religious groups, Mormon near-death experiencers consistently
report meeting with deceased family members, and being in
the presence of a being of light which they call God. However,
some Mormon near-death experiencers report two events that
appears to be uncommon with non-Mormon experiencers. They
report they are requested to do something in the world,
when they return to life, by the personage(s) they encounter
during their experience. They also report receiving religious
and other types of instructions from the "other world"
beings (Lundahl,
1982).
According to Lundahl (1982),
members of the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day
Saints report a high number of near-death experiences per
capita of their religion. The high number of reported near-death
experiences is probably due to the social values of the
Latter-day Saints which encourages individuals to share
their near-death experiences much more openly than most
other social groups (p.166). Mormons interpret near-death
experiences to be part of their religious beliefs and a
glimpse of life after death. |
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| 17.
Conclusion |
| |
 In
this essay I have discussed the contemporary work on near-death
experiences and some of the arguments against the plausibility
of reductionist theories and for the plausibility of transpersonal
theories of near-death experiences. I have also provided
an overview of the human consciousness of life after death,
religious beliefs concerning death and afterlife, and interpretations
of near-death experiences by different religious groups.
I believe the consistency between numerous reports of near-death
experiences, regardless of religious beliefs, and the similarity
of the near-death experiences to reported religious experiences,
provide plausible arguments for the transpersonal theories
of this experience.
Throughout
history Buddhists and Hindus, Muslims, Jews, Christians,
and Mormons have all reported having near-death experiences.
These experiences are similar to some of the visions or
journeys into the afterlife described in some of the sacred
texts of their religions. The descriptions of the near-death
experiences by members of these religious groups are believed,
by many, to be a glimpse into life after death, and appear
to be consistent with each religious group's interpretation
of the afterlife. However, there are some religious leaders
who do not believe the experiencer has been indisputably
dead and returned to life when he or she reports having
a near-death experience. These leaders interpret these experiences
as being pre-death visions of a transitory state prior to
the individual's final death and judgment.
Due
to the subjective nature of near-death experiences there
can be no conclusive proof that these experiences provide
visions of life after death: however, the reports of out-of-body
experiences, the near-death experiences of children, and
the notable changes in the near-death experiencer's life
following his or her experience support the possibility
of the validity of this theory (Moody,
1988;
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1985).
Because of the transpersonal nature of near-death experiences,
it is sometimes reported that it is difficult to describe
the experience in words. Near-death experiencers report
there are no appropriate words to accurately describe their
near-death experiences. They therefore interpret the experience
using words, phrases, and metaphors reflecting their religious-cultural
backgrounds and experiences.
The near-death experiences of
individuals of various beliefs are consistent with many
religious beliefs concerning life after death and do not
compromise the foundations of their religious traditions.
The descriptions of the mystical, depersonalization, and
hyperalert constellations of near-death experiences and
the autoscopic and transcendental grouping of these experiences
appear to closely relate to the levels of heightened sense
of consciousness associated with some religious rituals.
However, the shift from an organized religious practice
to a universalistically spiritual orientation may have an
effect on the religious practices of some experiencers.
Many choose to practice their new sense of universal spirituality
within their earlier religions; however, many near-death
experiencers move toward a religion more congruent with
their new found knowledge, or choose to practice their spirituality
through irreligious rituals and practices.
According
to Ring (1985)
many near-death experiencers attempt to incorporate their
new sense of spirituality into their lives. This removes
some of the limits of religious parochialism. To many experiencers
it becomes less important to be a member of a specific religious
group than to practice a more spiritual life not based upon
specific religious doctrine. However, some experiencers
chose to remain or become active in an organized religion
in order to practice their new spirituality. It is therefore
important for there to be an openness by religious groups
towards individuals who report near-death experiences and
not condemnation of the phenomenon as religious heresy. |
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| 18.
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