Religious Interpretations of
Near-Death Experiences by Dr. David San Filippo
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Dr. David
San Filippo
is a licensed mental health counselor,
a certified disability management specialist,
and a certified cognitive behavioral
specialist who has been working in human
services for more than 25 years. His
counseling and consulting service specializes
in helping adults overcome issues related
to personal development, trauma, grief,
and vocational rehabilitation. His intellectual
properties company deals with human
and artificial intelligence by combining
the collective knowledge of human intelligence
and dynamics with modern computer technology
to produce software products designed
to enhance people's personal and work
lives. His educational products consist
of the workshops and seminars that Dr.
San Filippo offers for human growth
and development. His website contains
a library section which is an outstanding
resource for general research in human
science in the areas of philosophy,
psychology, sociology and theology.
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| 1.
Abstract |
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Interpretations of near-death
experiences are influenced by religious and psychosocial
teachings about death and afterlife beliefs. Different
religious beliefs have resulted in the formation
of numerous religious groups who have fostered their
own interpretations of death and afterlife. The
immediate transition period between life and afterlife.
This essay provides an overview of reductionist
theories and for the plausibility of transpersonal
theories of near-death experiences. The essay then
provides an overview of the human consciousness
of what seems to be life after death, religious
beliefs concerning death and afterlife, and interpretations
of near-death experiences by different religious
groups. This essay contends that religious interpretations
combined with the contemporary work on near-death
experiences and the arguments against reductionism
provide grounds for the plausibility of the transpersonal
theories concerning near-death experiences.
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| 2.
Introduction |
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A near-death experience
is a conscious experience in which the individual
experiences a sense of being detached from the physical
world during the process of physiological dying.
Individuals may experience their own physiological
dyings and deaths and at the same time become aware
of their disembodied existences in an altered state
where they may experience a sense of peace, a separation
of consciousness from the body, entering darkness,
seeing a light, meeting spiritual entities, having
a panoramic life review, and a sense of judging
their lives ( Moody,
1975;
Morse, 1990,
Ring, 1980).
Near-death experiencers are generally positively
affected by their experiences and their confrontation
with death seems to give more meaning to the individual's
life (Kalish,
1981). Near-death
experiences could be considered "transpersonal"
experiences due to their nature of transcending
the usual "personal" physical and mental
realms of human consciousness. Transpersonal experiences
are those incidents that are of the highest or ultimate
human potential and beyond the ego or personal self
(Lajoie &
Shapiro, 1992, p. 90).
In order to evaluate near-death
experiences effectively, it is necessary to have
an understanding of personal beliefs concerning
life after death. According to Kellehear & Irwin
(1990),
the interpretation of the near-death experience
may be related to the social conditioning and beliefs
of the experiencer, such as interpreting the experience
in relationship to the experiencer's religious beliefs
concerning life after death.
Numerous surveys have
documented that the majority of people in the United
States believe in life after death (Kalish,
1981;
Kellehear & Irwin,
1990;
Klenow & Bolin, 1989,
Rodabough, 1985).
Psychologist
Charles Tart
(1991),
in his article, "Altered States of Consciousness
and the Possibility of Survival of Death",
discusses his belief that humans regain some type
of consciousness after death. He states, "The
direct experience of existing and experiencing in
some form that seems partially or fully independent
of the physical body is relatively common in various
altered states of consciousness, and this kind of
experience constitutes the most direct knowledge
of survival an individual may have" (p. 37).
Past-life researcher
Brian Weiss
(1988)
reports there are experiences of what seems to be
life after death, as reported by many of his subjects,
and that the different experiences and concepts
of the subject's lifetime, involving religion and
death, can influence the individual's understanding
of death and afterlife.
Religions involve group
practices of similar religious beliefs. An individual's
personal religious beliefs are experienced within
the individual's consciousness and may be related
to others through various religious practices. Through
social participation individual beliefs may be formed
and heightened. Religious beliefs may both provide
explanations for unexplained phenomena and communicate
the essence of human transpersonal experiences.
Interpretations of near-death
experiences can be influenced by religious beliefs
in life after death. The effects of religious diversity
may not only influence the interpretations of near-death
experiences but also may account for some of the
differences in the descriptions of encounters with
incorporeal entities, the setting of the experience,
and in the activities reported during the experience.
Religious beliefs can provide references to explain
the "difficult to explain" experiences
associated with a near-death experience (Foos-Graber,
1989;
Kubler-Ross, 1991;
Moody, 1975,
1977,
1988;
Ring, 1980,
1982).
Most reported near-death experiences appear to support
many philosophical and religious theories of what
is anticipated in life after death such as communion
with incorporeal beings and the existence of afterlife
polar planes of good and bad, heaven and hell.
It is the intention of
this essay to provide a review of the near-death
experience phenomenon and the beliefs in life after
death of some religious denominations who have reported
near-death experiences, as well as their interpretations
of these experiences. The essay will conclude that
these religious interpretations, combined with contemporary
near-death research, and arguments against reductionist
interpretations provide grounds for the plausibility
of transpersonal theories concerning near-death
experiences.
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| 3.
Near-Death Experiences |
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Near-death experiences
appear to be a universal phenomena that has been
reported for centuries. A near-death encounter is
defined as an event in which the individual could
very easily die or be killed, or may have already
been considered clinically dead, but nonetheless
survives, and continue his or her physical life
( Moody,
1977, p.124).
Reports of near-death experiences date back to the
Ice Age. There are cave paintings, in France and
Spain, depicting possible after life scenes that
are similar to reported scenes related to near-death
experiences (Zaleski,
1987). Plato's
Republic presents the story of a near-death experience
of a Greek soldier named
Er.
In this account, the soldier is killed in battle
and his body is placed on a funeral pyre. Just before
he is to be cremated, he awakens and tells a story
of leaving his body and traveling with others to
a place where they were all to be judged (Plato,
1928). Historical
figures such as
Carl Jung,
Thomas Edison, and Ernest Hemingway have also reported
their own near-death experiences (Jung,
1961;
Moody, 1977,
Zaleski, 1987).
Modern researchers, such as
Elisabeth Kubler-Ross,
Raymond Moody,
Kenneth Ring,
and
Melvin Morse,
have provided modern accounts of near-death experiences.
Through their research, they have been able to provide
phenomenological evidence regarding these experiences
as altered states of consciousness, and qualitatively
demonstrated that the great similarities between
the different reports of these experiences are not
a result of chance or accident.
According to a 1991 Gallup
Poll estimate, 13 million Americans, 5% of the population,
reported they have had a near-death experience (Greyson,
1992). Research
has demonstrated that near-death experiences are
no more likely to affect the devoutly religious
than the agnostic or atheist. Near-death experiences
can be experienced by anyone (Moody,
1975,
1977,
1980,
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1980,
1985).
According to Talbot (1991),
near-death experiences appear to have no relationship
to "a person's age, sex, marital status, race,
religion and/or spiritual beliefs, social class,
educational level, income, frequency of church attendance,
size of home community, or area of residence"
(p. 240).
Near-death experiences
have been recorded in folklore, religious, and social
writings throughout the world. Reports have been
recorded from societies such as Native American,
Tibet, Japan, Melanesia, Micronesia, Egypt, China,
India, Africa, Australia, Europe, and the United
States (Greyson,
1992;
Mauro, 1992).
According to Ring (1980),
there does not appear to be any relationship between,
on one hand, an individual's spirituality and religious
practices, and on the other hand, the likelihood
of experiencing a near-death experience or the depth
of the ensuing experience.
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| 4.
The Phenomenology of the Near-Death Experience |
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Near-death experiencer consistently report similar
experiences. According to Talbot ( 1991), "One
of the most interesting aspects of the ND phenomenon
is the consistency one finds from experience to
experience" (p. 240). Although most near-death
experiencers may not experience all of the traits
associated with near-death experiences or in the
same order, experiencers consistently report similar
experiences. The following is a constructed description
of the content of a near-death experience representing
most of the major traits:
At the onset of the near-death
experience, the individual may experience a sense
of being dead, and surprise at being dead, yet will
remain peaceful and have no feelings of pain. Following
the peaceful awareness of being dead, the experiencer
may have an out-of-body experience, a perception
of separating from the physical body and moving
away from the deceased body. The individual may
experience a sense of moving through a tunnel, during
the stage of entering into the darkness. As the
individual passes through the tunnel, there may
be an awareness of a bright light towards the end
of the tunnel. While experiencing the consciousness
of the light, ethereal forms recognizable by the
experiencer may be seen in the light. In the later
part of the near-death experience, the individual
may sense he or she is rising rapidly towards the
light into what he or she may consider heaven or
another plane of consciousness. During this ascension,
the experiencer may encounter a Being of Light reported
to be either God, another spiritual deity, or an
energy form recognized by non-theists. The encounter
with the Being of Light engulfs the experiencer
with a sense of unconditional love emanating from
the Being. During this encounter, the near-death
experiencer may become conscious of having a total
panoramic review of his or her life and may experience
a sense of self-judgment when observing his or her
life events in review. The judgment is not by the
Being of Light but is a personal judgment by the
experiencer. Throughout each of the stages, and
particularly in the latter stages of the near-death
experience, the individual may be reluctant to return
to his or her former life.
Although most near-death
reports are positive, in that they are pleasurable
experiences, there are some reports of negative
or "hellish" type experiences. The reports
of negative near-death experiences appear to be
rare. Of all the reported near-death experiences,
a 1982 Gallup poll estimated that less than 1% are
considered to be negative, hellish, and frightening
experiences. The negative near-death experiences
are reported to contain similar traits as positive
experiences but are associated with a sense of extreme
fear, panic or anger, a sense of helplessness, and
possible visions of demonic creatures (Moody,
1988, p.25, 27;
Staff, 1992 p. 1-2; Horacek, 1992, p. 3).
Many individuals who have
experienced a near-death experience claim a fuller
understanding of their religious or spiritual insights
and their impact on their lives (Moody,
1988;
Peay, 1991;
Ring, 1985).
They report feeling closer to God after their near-death
experience. Ring (1980)
comments: The way in which post-incident religiousness
reveals itself among core experiencers is primarily
in terms of an inward sense of religion: They feel
closer to God, are more prayerful, are less concerned
with organized religion and formal ritual, and express
a sense of religious tolerance and religious universalism.
It isn't clear that their belief in God per se grows
stronger, although it is clear their religious feeling
does. Following their incident, they are significantly
more inclined then non-experiencers to be convinced
there is life after death (p.173). The effect of
this spiritual awakening on the experiencer is a
more positive attitude towards life, a lack of fear
of dying, and a sense of service towards others
(Moody,
1977,
1980,
1988;
Ring, 1980,
1985).
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| 5.
Models of Near-Death Experiences |
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The
phenomenology of the near-death experience can be
described by reporting the various stages of the
experience, the characteristics or traits of the
experience - which occur during various stages of
the experience, by the constellations or related
conscious experiences associated with near-death
experiences, or by the experiential grouping of
stages, traits, or constellations of the experiences.
Experiencers may experience some or all of these
stages, traits, consciousness, and types. The stages
of near-death experiences relate to the experiencer's
sense of progression towards a destination. The
traits are associated with a sense of consciousness
or knowledge concerning the activities within the
near-death experience. Noyes and Slymen ( 1978-79)
and Sabom (1977)
further categorize the stages and traits of near-death
experiencers into constellations and group types
to analyze further the phenomenology of the near-death
experience. The statistical analysis of the data
presented in the Ring (1980,
1985),
Evergreen (Lindley,
1981), and
Noyes and Slymen (1978-79)
studies, and the research of Sabom (1977)
demonstrate the consistency of these models of classification
of near-death experiences.
Kenneth Ring (1980)
has devised a model of the stages of near-death
experiences recognized by near-death experiencers.
The stages are: |
Stages of
the Near-Death Experience
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1. |
A sense of peace at the
time of death. |
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2. |
A sense of separation from
the body. |
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3. |
A sense of entering into
darkness. |
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4. |
Seeing a bright light. |
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5. |
A sense of entering the
light |
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Raymond Moody (
1988),
identifies nine distinguishing qualities, characteristics
or traits that have been associated with near-death
experiences and may be perceived within the stages
of the near-death experiences identified by the
Ring study. The Moody defined near-death experience
traits are: |
Distinguishing
Qualities and Characteristics of
the NDE
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1. |
A sense of being dead. |
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2. |
A sense of peace and painlessness. |
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3. |
A sense of separation from
the physical body. |
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4. |
The sense of passing through
a tunnel. |
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5. |
A sense of an encounter
with recognizable ethereal
entities, such as family,
friends, angels or religious
personages. These spirits
may appear to be enveloped
in light. |
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6. |
A sense of rising rapidly
into the heavens. |
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7. |
A sense of an encounter
with a Being of Light which
emanates unconditional love.
This being has been described
as God or Allah. |
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8. |
An experience of a panoramic,
total life review and sense
of self-judgment about one's
life while bathed in the
unconditional love of the
Being of Light. |
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9. |
A sense of reluctance to
return to the world of the
living. |
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10. |
A sense of a compression
or absence of time and sensing
no restrictions of space
but a freedom to go where
the experiencer chooses. |
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According to a study performed
by Noyes and Slymen (1978-79),
near-death experiences can be classified further
into three consciousness constellations of the type
of event: mystical, depersonalized, and hyperalert.
The mystical type includes a sense of harmony and
unity, color or visions, and a feeling of great
understanding. Depersonalization relates to the
loss of emotion, detachment from the physical body,
and an altered sense of the passage of time. The
hyperalert constellation refers to the experiencer's
sense that his or her thoughts are sharply defined,
vivid, and accelerated.
Sabom (1977)
also has divided near-death experiencers into three
experiential group types: autoscopic, transcendental,
and mixed experiences. The autoscopic experiencers
include the individuals who have experienced the
sense of leaving their bodies, having out-of-body
experiences. The transcendental group include individuals
who have a sense of entering into a "spiritual
realm". In the mixed experiences, the near-death
experiencer may experience a mixture of autoscopic
and transcendental experiences (Moody,
1988). Regardless
of the methodology used to classify near-death experiences,
the anecdotal nature of the near-death reports are
similar and consistent between experiencers (Moody,
1977,
1988;
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1980,
1985). |
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6.
Transpersonal and Reductionist Theories Concerning
Near-Death Experiences |
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 Near-death
researchers Moody (1975,
1977,
1988), Morse (1990),
and Ring (1980,
1985) suggest that near-death experiences are
related to a state of consciousness, separate from
the physical body, which occurs at the time of death.
Near-death researchers have collected hundreds of
phenomenological descriptions of individual near-death
experiences and have statistically correlated the
occurrences of the stages and traits associated
with these experience. The consistency of near-death
experience reports provide support for the theories
that these experiences are not a result of hallucinations
or mental dysfunctions. Individuals, regardless,
of age, race, religion, or national origin have
reported similar experiences during a near-death
episode. The chi-square method of statistical analysis
has been used by near-death researchers to determine
if the similarity of events reported during the
\near-death experience, by experiencer, are a result
of chance or are to be expected elements of the
near-death experience (Morse,
1990, Ring,
1980,
1985). The chi-square method is a non-parametric
statistical test used to determine the statistical
significance of the difference between the frequencies
of reported outcomes with the expected frequencies
of outcomes. In other words, did the events reported
in near-death experiences happen by chance or can
the events anticipated (Borg & Gall,
1989). The statistical significance of near-death
research provides that the similarity in the reports
of near-death experiencer do not happen as a result
of chance but are consistent phenomena of the near-death
experiencers (Morse,
1990; Ring,
1980,
1985, Rodabough,
1985; Sabom & Kreutziger,
1977).
Some theologians, medical
practitioners, and psychologists do not believe
near-death experiences are paranormal experiences.
According to Moody (1988),
some theological, medical, and psychological theorists
attempt to explain near-death experiences as physical
or mental phenomena that has more to do with brain
and neurological-biological dysfunctions associated
with the dying process.
Researchers such as Sagan
(1979)
and Siegel (1981)
attempt to debunk the near-death experience by stating
it is a result of a chemical reaction within the
brain during the dying process. They postulate that
as the eyes deteriorate following death they produce
the bright light reported to be seen during the
near-death experience. The tunnel effect and a sensation
of being out-of-body is believed to be caused by
the chemical reactions in the body during the death
process (Moody,
1988, p.178). According to researcher Ronald
Siegel (1981), "The
descriptions given by dying persons are virtually
identical to descriptions given by persons experiencing
hallucinations, drug-induced or otherwise,"
(p. 65). Carl Sagan (1979)
states that some of the near-death experiences can
be associated with "a wiring defect in the
human neuroanatomy that under certain conditions
always leads to the same illusion of astral projection/out-of-body
experience," (p. 47). According to Moody (1988)
and Morse (1990),
some researchers attempt to explain near-death experiences
as the mind's defense against the fear of dying,
that the mind creates positive images of an afterlife
in order to control the fear of dying.
Many near-death researchers
regard three consistently repeated reports as providing
credibility for the transpersonal theories that
near-death experiences are the expression of an
altered state of consciousness separate from the
physical or mental realm of human existence having
a profound impact on the experiencer's life. These
reports thus are crucial to cite in responding to
the theorists who attempt to debunk the near-death
experience as a transpersonal phenomenon. These
three factors reported are: |
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Reports That Provide Credibility
for the Transpersonal
Theory of the NDE |
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1. |
Consistent reports of out-of-body
experiences of individuals
who sense they separate
from their physical body
during the near-death experience
and can observe their body
and surroundings from a
detached position.
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2. |
The consistent reports of
near-death experiences of
children are similar to
those experiences reported
by adults.
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3. |
The attitudinal and personality
changes of the near-death
experiencers following their
experience (Moody,
1988;
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1980,
1985).
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The
following discussion of out-of-body experiences,
children's near-death experiences, and the post-experience
attitudinal and personality changes of near-death
experiencers, suggest reasons why the reductionist
or debunking theories are implausible. |
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| 7.
Out-Of-Body Experiences |
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|
 During
an out-of-body experience, experiencers report leaving
their physical body and viewing their body and other
activity from a detached, uninvolved perspective.
Upon recovery from the near-death experience, many
experiencers recall details of medical procedures
being performed on them that they had no prior knowledge
of the technique. Some experiencers report traveling
to other locations, other than the place where the
body may be lying "dead." The out-of-body
experiencer is then able to report things he or
she may have seen during the out-of-body experience,
and there is no other logical explanation for the
source of this knowledge (Eadie,
1992;
Moody, 1988;
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1980,
1985;
Ritchie, 1978;
Zaleski, 1987).
An example of this experience is a story told by
a very near-sighted woman. During her out-of-body
experience, she reports that she was first lying
on an operating table with the anesthesia machine
behind her head. She then became aware that she
had detached from her body and was able to see,
without difficulty, the equipment identification
numbers on the anesthesia machine. These numbers
were out of her normal visual range and behind her
body's head. She then floated up to the top of the
room and noted how the top of the light fixtures
were dirty. After her recovery from her near-death
experience, she returned to the operating room and
was able to ascertain that the numbers she had seen
on the machine were correct and that the light fixtures
were in need of cleaning (Ring,
1985, p. 42-43).
This experience supports the belief that near-death
experiences involve separation from the physical
body and mind.
Studying the out-of-body
phenomenon leads to doubt about the beliefs of those
who attempt to debunk the theory that near-death
experiences are transpersonal experiences transcending
the physical and mental realm of human consciousness.
The knowledge the experiencer gains during the out-of-body
experience, in most cases, could not have been learned
by any other method other than by a consciousness
detached from the physical body (Moody,
1988;
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1980,
1985).
The ability of experiencers to report things and
events they had no prior knowledge of provides for
the plausibility that the out-of-body experience
is a transpersonal event and not a psychological
response to dying.
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| 8.
Children and Near-Death Experiences |
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|
 Young
children have reported having near-death experiences.
Their reports are similar to adult near-death experiences
even though they may not have had time to be enculturated
with the same socio-religious beliefs regarding
death as adults, or developed a fear of death through
their psychological development. Children report
having out-of-body experiences, passing through
a tunnel, and encountering spiritual forms during
their near-death experiences. Of interest are the
reports of children who meet spiritual entities
that are later identified as deceased relatives
whom the child could not have known prior to his
or her near-death experience (Moody,
1975,
1988,
Morse, 1990).
The accounts of young
children's near-death experiences suggest the unlikeliness
of the debunking theory that near-death experiences
are the mind's psychological defense towards dying.
Children who have not had time to learn of their
mortality do not usually fear dying. According to
Frank (1982)
and Anthony (1967)
children, until between the age of five and seven,
consider death to be reversible and generally do
not have a fear of dying. They, therefore, do not
have a need to create an afterlife experience, such
as is experienced in a near-death experience, in
order to overcome a fear of dying (Moody,
1988;
Morse, 1990).
Furthermore, following near-death experiences, children
share similar after-effects of the experience as
adult experiencers. They grow to have a sense of
purpose and direction in their lives, and as they
mature, do not develop a fear of dying (Morse,
1990). |
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9. Attitudinal and Personality Changes Following
Near-Death Experiences |
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According to Wilson (1987),
the real importance of the near-death experience
is in the after-effects it has on the life of the
experiencer. The usual psychological and spiritual
after-effects of a near-death experience consist
of changes in personality and values and an attitudinal
change towards religion and death. There is a heightened
sense of appreciation of life, especially of the
world of nature and of other people. The near-death
experiencer achieves a sense of understanding of
what is important to him or her in life and strives
to live in accordance with his or her understanding
of what is meaningful. Consistently reported after-effects
of near-death experiences are the lack of fear of
death, an attitude of unconditional love and service
towards others, and the desire to seek knowledge
(Kalish,
1981,
Moody, 1977,
1988;
Peay, 1991;
Ring, 1980).
According to Ring (1985),
many near-death experiences act as a catalyst to
a spiritual awakening for the experiencer: What
is noteworthy ... is the particular form this spiritual
development takes in many NDErs - i.e., the real
significance of the NDE here may not be simply that
it promotes spiritual growth as much as the kind
of spiritual growth it promotes (p. 144). This awakening
appears to move the experiencer toward what Ring
(1985)
calls a "universalistically spiritual orientation"
(p. 145). He defines universalistically spiritual
orientation as consisting of: |
Definition
of Universalistic Spiritual Orientation
|
1. |
A tendency to characterize
oneself as spiritual rather
than religious, per se. |
|
2. |
A feeling of being inwardly
close to God. |
|
3. |
A de-emphasis of the formal
aspects of religious life
and worship. |
|
4. |
A conviction that there
is life after death, regardless
of religious belief. |
|
5. |
An openness to the doctrine
of reincarnation (and a
general sympathy towards
eastern religions). |
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6. |
A belief in the essential
underlying unity of all
religions. |
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7. |
A desire for a universal
religion embracing all humanity
(p. 146). |
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The long-term positive
effects the near-death experience has on the experiencer's
life gives evidence for supporting a plausible argument
for the transpersonal nature of the near-death experience.
This aspect of the near-death experience has not
been addressed by reductionist theories in the literature
reviewed. The profundity of the after-effects of
a near-death experience on the experiencer's life
have not been able to be achieved through pharmacological
or psychological methods. Most of the sensory nature
of the near-death experience can be induced through
drugs or hallucinations but the positive change
in the individual's personality and attitudes do
not appear to be capable of replication (Moody,
1988;
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1985).
Ring (1980)
reports these after-effects appear to remain with
the individual for the remainder of his or her mortal
life.
In the first part of
this essay, I have reviewed some of the contemporary
near-death research and some of the arguments against
the plausibility of the reductionist theories and
for the plausibility to transpersonal theories explaining
near-death experiences. In the following part of
this essay, religious beliefs concerning death,
afterlife, and near-death experiences will be discussed.
This discussion will provide commentary regarding
the similarities between different religious beliefs
and experiences concerning death, as well as between
religious interpretations of near-death experiences. |
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| 10.
Religious Beliefs Concerning Death, Afterlife, and
Near-Death Experiences |
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|
 Polls
and studies support the assumption that the majority
of people believe death is not the end of one's
existence but rather a transition from one life
to another (Gallup &
Castelli, 1989;
Kellehear & Irwin,
1990;
Klenow & Bolin, 1989).
Different religions have provided belief structures
supporting the religious and social needs of practitioners.
Rituals and sacred writings support the various
religious interpretations of what death is and what
it will be like in the afterlife. However, even
with the differences in religious beliefs, there
are similarities between many different religious
groups regarding afterlife beliefs. One similarity
among religious groups is the belief in an afterlife
following physical death. Another similarity is
the presence of "the two polar images of life
after death - the abode of the righteous, heaven
or paradise, and the place for the wicked, or hell"
(Grof &
Grof, 1980, p. 13).
These polar images are also recognized by many near-death
experiencers.
According to Hick (1980),
a belief in the immortality of the spirit has been
present in most religions for centuries. The belief
in a life after death is one of the oldest concepts
of human history (DeSpelder &
Strickland, 1983).
Proving the immortality of the human soul has been
the objective of many philosophers, theologians,
and scientists. Freud (1961)
stated, "Our own death is indeed unimaginable,
and whenever we make an attempt to imagine it we
can perceive that we really survive as spectators."
Hence the psychoanalytic school could venture on
the assertion that, at bottom, no one believes in
his own death. Or to put it in another way, in the
unconscious everyone is convinced of his or her
own immortality (p. 154). Many beliefs in life after
death have concerned a non-physical transition into
a serene spiritual world with encounters of other
deceased people and possible religious figures.
There may be a judgment or accounting of one's life
with a final disposition of the individual spirit
following the period of judgment or personal assessment.
Near-death experiences
and the reports of a consciousness of life after
death have been provided by members of Buddhist,
Hindu, Islam, Jewish, Christian, and Mormon religions,
among others. Agnostics and atheists also have reported
near-death experiences even with their predisposed
lack of belief in anything greater than personal
self and this life. The following are brief commentaries
regarding the beliefs concerning death, afterlife,
and near-death experiences within these religious
and irreligious frameworks. |
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| 11.
Agnostics and Atheists |
| |
|
 Agnostics
believe it is impossible to know whether there is
a God or life after death. Atheists believe there
is no God and no life after death and that death
is the cessation of the existence of the individual.
Agnostics and atheists
have reported having near-death experiences. These
experiences are similar to the reports of individuals
who have professed a spiritual belief prior to their
near-death experience (Moody,
1977;
Rawlings, 1978;
Ring, 1985).
Agnostics and atheists report achieving an altered
state of consciousness in which they have experienced
some or all of the traits Moody attributes to a
near-death experience. Most agnostics and atheists
interpret their near-death experiences as a glimpse
of life after death (Rawlings,1978;
Ring, 1985).
Prior to the near-death experience, they did not
believe in life after death. As a result of the
experience, most agnostic and atheist experiencers
eventually move toward a more spiritually guided
life with a new found belief in life after death
(Rawlings,
1978;
Ring, 1985, p. 151).
Maurice Rawlings (1978)
reported he did not know of any agnostic or atheist
individual from his research who, after experiencing
a near-death experience, remained convinced of there
being no God, no life after death, or nothing else
beyond the material existence. |
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| 12.
Buddhism and Hinduism |
| |
|
 Buddhists
believe that upon death, there is rebirth to another
life. Death is accepted as inevitable and not feared.
The believer's actions in this life will determine
his or her level of rebirth. Karma is the force
created by the actions of the individual - the effects
of actions. Good karma, which is achieved by compassionate
actions in this life, leads to a higher existence
in the next life. Nirvana is reached by achieving
an understanding of the nature of reality. This
must be discovered through the experiences of other
dimensions of human consciousness (Klein,
1991, p. 103).
According to Buddhist
cosmology, numerous, hierarchically arranged heavens
exist along with eight hot and cold hells. The individual
spirit exists in one of these realms, based upon
the karma created in the previous life, until reborn
into another life. This cycle continues until the
enlightenment of nirvana is achieved (Klein,
1991).
According to Swami Adiswarananda
(1991),
in the Hindu religion, death comes as a break in
the continued events of life and brings about a
change in the form in which the spirit resides.
Hindus believe the afterlife is a passage of time
in a heaven or hell, dependent upon the karma built
up in life. The judgment about one's life is based
upon the karma the individual created in his or
her past lives. The rebirth of the spirit into the
next life, through the transmigration of the soul,
is determined by the developed karma and the individual's
last thoughts in the present life. An individual's
search for eternal happiness and immortality results
in the rebirth of the spirit in different bodies
until the spirit learns that happiness and immortality
are not a result of the fulfillment of desires but
are attained when all desires and needs are no longer
important (Adiswarananda,
1991;
Elb, 1906).
According to some Hindus, the various religious
faiths are "different paths to reach one and
the same goal - union with God as ultimate Reality"
(Johnson &
McGee, 1991).
There are reports of Chinese
Buddhists having near-death experiences (Kellehear,
Heaven, Gao, 1990).
Becker (1981)
suggests that near-death experiences may have been
responsible for part of the development of Pure
Land Buddhism in China. A Hindu report of a near-death
experience relates how the experiencer entered into
heaven on the back of a cow (Ferris,
1991).
According to Mauro (1992), "East
Indians [Hindus] sometimes see heaven as a giant
bureaucracy, and frequently report being sent back
because of clerical errors," whereas Japanese
experiencers report seeing symbolic images, such
as "long, dark rivers and beautiful flowers"
(p. 57). During the near-death experience, the Buddhist
experiencers have reported seeing the personage
of Buddha, and Hindu experiencers report seeing
Krishna (Rawlings,
1978;
Ring, 1980;
Talbot, 1991).
The difference in Buddhist and Hindu reports of
near-death experiences is predominately associated
with the afterlife setting and the personages the
experiencer reports encountering.
Buddhist and Hindu near-death
experiencers may report different interpretations
of the specifics of their experiences; however,
the experiences are consistent with other stages,
traits, constellations, and group types reported
by near-death experiencers in other cultures and
religions. Some members of the Buddhist and Hindu
religions interpret near-death experiences as providing
afterlife visions similar to visions ascribed to
some Eastern religious experiences associated with
death and afterlife. Becker (1984)
comments "that ancient Japanese Buddhist meditative
and deathbed visions closely parallel modern American
near-death and deathbed visions" (p. 51). The
Tibetan Book of the Dead (1973)
describes the Bardo, the three stages of the transitionary "disembodied
state" following death. In the first stage,
the departed have visions of the "Blinding
Clear Light of Pure Reality." In the second
stage, the departed encounter a succession of "deities."
In the third stage the departed is judged based
upon past deeds by the "Dharma Raja, King and
Judge of the Dead" (Grof &
Grof, 1980).
These stages are similar in content to other reported
near-death experiences from other religions and
cultures. These similarities include a movement
through levels - such as passing through a tunnel,
visions of pure light, meeting incorporeal beings,
powers of astral projections or out-of-body-experience,
and a judgment about one's life (Becker,
1985).
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| 13.
Islam |
| |
|
 Death,
in the Islamic faith, is the cessation of biological
life and the resting of the spirit, in the grave,
until the Judgment Day. Some Muslims believe "good
souls" see visions of God, and the wicked see
the hell awaiting them. From the time of death to
the time of judgment, Muslims believe the spirit
remains in a state of "dreamless sleep,"
with the exception of possible visions of eternity
(Galloway,
1991;
Johnson & McGee, 1991).
Faith in an afterlife
is based upon the belief in the oneness of God and
the belief in a day of resurrection and judgment
for all regardless of religious belief. At that
time, the spirit will be judged based upon its deeds
in life, and allowed either to enter into Paradise
and be with God, be thrown into the Fire for a period
of purgation, or condemned to everlasting punishment
in the Fire. Most Muslims believe that non-Muslims
can reach Paradise only after a period of purgation
(Johnson &
McGee, 1991;
Smith, J. 1991).
Muslims have reported
having near-death experiences (Flynn,
1986;
Rawlings, 1978).
Muslim near-death experiencers report seeing and
meeting recognizable spirits (Flynn,
1986;
Rawlings, 1978).
This conforms with the Islamic tradition that the
souls of the faithful, in paradise, welcome the "incoming
souls" and with other reports of visions of
people awaiting the newly deceased (Holck,
1980;
Moody, 1975,
1977;
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1985). In Muslim near-death experiences, the
Being of Light is identified as Allah, whereas in
other religions the light might be identified as
God (Ring, 1985).
Some Muslims interpret
the near-death experience as a possible glimpse
into life after death due to the similarity of the
experience with the religious visions of Muhammad
and their expectations of life after death (Ring,
1985;
Zaleski, 1987).
An Islamic myth describes Muhammad's "Night
Journey"
as his experience of passing through the realms
of the afterlife where he encounters spirits who
have died, has a vision of heaven and hell, and
communes with Allah (Couliano,
1991;
Grof & Grof, 1980,
Zaleski, 1987). |
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| 14.
Judaism |
| |
|
 The
Jewish religion generally emphasizes the current
life, and not life after death. Although Judaism
recognizes that the life of the spirit does not
end at the point of bodily death, it is the Jew's
responsibility to focus on a meaningful life and
not speculate on life after death. According to
Elb (1906),
the Jewish Bible states that actions taken in the
present life will reward the righteous and chastise
the wicked. It does not specifically address the
concept of an afterlife. Even though the Jewish
Bible does not directly address immortality, traditional
Jews believe immortality will bring the resurrection
of the body and soul, followed by the judgment of
the worth of their lives by God. The Reformed Jew
believes resurrection involves only the soul. Jews
believe they live and die only once (Ponn,
1991).
Since there is no discussion,
in the Jewish Bible, of afterlife, there is no official
Jewish religious opinion regarding life after death.
However, according to Ponn (1991),
many Jews believe human souls will be held accountable
before God for what has been accomplished in the
current life. After death, many Jews believe they
will be reunited with family members in heaven.
Their belief in God's caring nature disavows a sadistic
punishment in hell. Entrance into heaven is accomplished
by righteous living and repentance. Heaven is considered
a place where anxiety and pain is ended (Galloway,
1991;
Johnson & McGee, 1991).
There have been a number
of reported near-death experiences by members of
the Jewish faith.
Barbara Harris,
a practicing Jew, reports having had several near-death
experiences since 1975. Harris and Bascom's (1990)
book,
Full Circle: The Near-Death Experience and Beyond,
is a narrative of Harris' near-death experiences.
Jewish people who had a near-death experience relate
similar observations and experiences as the experiences
of other religious-spiritual believers. During the
near-death experience, individuals report being
in the presence of the Being of Light and judging
their own lives (Harris &
Bascom, 1990).
This experience is similar to the Jewish belief
that what is important in life is the attending
to the responsibilities of living a meaningful,
productive life. Many near-death experiencers report
being met by family members. These reports are consistent
with the Jewish belief that after death they will
be reunited with family members in heaven (Galloway,
1991;
Johnson & McGee, 1991;
Moody, 1975,
1977,
1980;
Ring, 1980,
1985). |
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|
15. Christianity |
| |
|
 Modern
Christians are united in their belief that Jesus
is the son of God and that there is an afterlife.
Upon death, Christians believe they come before
God and are judged. According to Smith (1991), "Following
death, human life is fully translated into the supernatural
domain" (p. 355). Fundamentalists and conservatives
interpret the Holy Bible (1952)
literally and believe there is a specific heaven
and hell and only Christians are admitted to heaven.
All others are condemned to hell. Other Christians
interpret Biblical scripture more symbolically,
taking into consideration the language and culture
of the time when the Bible was written. Heaven and
hell are viewed as a "condition," such
as happiness or peace, rather than a specific place.
Regardless of whether the afterlife beliefs are
interpreted conservatively or liberally, the Christian
believes he or she dies only once and, after death,
the spirit is judged and then exists in an afterlife
for eternity (Galloway,
1991;
Johnson & McGee, 1991). "It
is appointed for men to die once, and after that
comes judgment" (Hebrews
9:27).
Near-death experiences
appear to be familiar paranormal occurrences to
Christians. Bechtel, Chen, Pierce, & Walker
(1992)
reported that 98% of the clergy they surveyed were
familiar with near-death phenomena and that almost
half of them have counseled parishioners who had
a near-death experience. As with other religious
interpretations of the near-death experience, Christians
also report encounters with religious beings such
as Jesus, Mary, or angels (Flynn,
1986,
Moody, 1977,
1988;
Morse, 1990,
Ring, 1980,
1985).
Experiencers report similar out-of-body experiences,
meeting recognizable spiritual entities, movement
toward a bright light, and a sense of being in the
presence of an energy of "unconditional love"
while the experiencer judges his or her life (Moody,
1975,
Morse, 1990).
Some Christians refute
the near-death experience as being a demonic deception.
They believe the entire near-death experience is
a trick of Satan to pull believers from the teachings
of Christianity and lead them into sin (Harpur,
1992). Other Christians interpret the near-death
experience as a glimpse of an after death state
that may exist prior to the afterlife judgment by
God. Near-death experiences and experiences similar
to the altered state of the near-death experiences
are recorded in the Holy Bible (1952).
These experiences are not reported as being evil
or sinful. The scripture writers have recorded visions
of bright lights, life reviews, the presence of
the unconditional love of God, and visions of heaven
and hell from Biblical individuals who have been
close to death (Morse,
1990;
Rawlings, 1978).
In the Apostle Paul's letter to the Corinthians,
II Corinthians 12:1-10,
Paul records a "vision" he had. This vision
resembles the content of a near-death experience.
It involved Paul being "taken up to heaven
for a visit" and "hear[ing] things so
astounding that they are beyond man's power to describe
or put in words." Near-death experiencers consistently
report the difficulty of verbalizing what they experience.
The effect of this experience, on Paul, was a personal
confirmation and assurance of his work (Hunter,
1985;
Living Bible, 1971).
According to Flynn (1986),
to many experiencers, "the near-death experience
affirms the uniqueness and centrality and indispensability
of Christ, but in a universalistic way that does
not negate or diminish the value of other religious
traditions...[It will] break through sectarian and
other barriers and shine a laser beam of Light on
the true essence and meaning of Christ for all people"
(p. 80). Ring (1985)
supports Flynn's comments, in his conclusions regarding
the universalistically spiritual orientation of
experiencers following near-death experiences. He
found that following a near-death experience, the
Christian experiencer "gravitated towards a
religious world view that may incorporate and yet
transcend the traditional Christian perspective"
(p. 147). |
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| 16.
Mormonism |
| |
|
 Death
in the Mormon religion is not considered to be the
end of existence of the individual but the beginning
of a new existence as the same person. Mormons believe
they have always lived and will always live as the
same individual, "never as someone else or
in another life-form" (Eyre,
1991, p. 139).
Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day
Saints are saddened by the death of a loved one
but are comforted in the belief that upon death
the spirit is united with God in a spirit world,
continuing to progress in knowledge, and await the
coming of other family members, the resurrection
of the physical body, and the final judgment. A
belief in an afterlife is an essential part of the
faith of the members of the Church of the Latter-day
Saints.
In Mormonism, only "sons
of perdition" - former believers who betray
the church - are destined for eternal punishment.
All others are assured at least an entry into a
lesser Paradise, called the "telestial kingdom,"
where one spends eternity apart from God. The most
faithful attain the "celestial kingdom,"
where they commune directly with God and eventually
may themselves become gods and populate new universes
with their own spiritual offspring. The Mormon Church
is the only church that has a "safety net."
Any spirit that has not heard the Gospel of Jesus
Christ in life will, before Judgment Day, will be
given a chance in Paradise to hear it, and if the
spirit accepts the teachings, it will receive equal
blessings from God (Staff, 1992, p. 74).
The judgment reported
by Mormon near-death experiencers is essentially
a self-judgment. This self-judgment is similar to
the reported life reviews and self-judgment reported
in near-death experiences. Experiencers report seeing
a panoramic review of their entire life and then
judge their own actions while awash in the "unconditional
love" of the Being of Light. After the judgment,
the spirit dwells with others most like it (Eyre,
1991). As with
many other religious groups, Mormon near-death experiencers
consistently report meeting with deceased family
members, and being in the presence of a being of
light which they call God. However, some Mormon
near-death experiencers report two events that appears
to be uncommon with non-Mormon experiencers. They
report they are requested to do something in the
world, when they return to life, by the personage(s)
they encounter during their experience. They also
report receiving religious and other types of instructions
from the "other world" beings (Lundahl,
1982).
According to Lundahl (1982),
members of the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day
Saints report a high number of near-death experiences
per capita of their religion. The high number of
reported near-death experiences is probably due
to the social values of the Latter-day Saints which
encourages individuals to share their near-death
experiences much more openly than most other social
groups (p.166). Mormons interpret near-death experiences
to be part of their religious beliefs and a glimpse
of life after death. |
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| 17.
Conclusion |
| |
|
 In
this essay I have discussed the contemporary work
on near-death experiences and some of the arguments
against the plausibility of reductionist theories
and for the plausibility of transpersonal theories
of near-death experiences. I have also provided
an overview of the human consciousness of life after
death, religious beliefs concerning death and afterlife,
and interpretations of near-death experiences by
different religious groups. I believe the consistency
between numerous reports of near-death experiences,
regardless of religious beliefs, and the similarity
of the near-death experiences to reported religious
experiences, provide plausible arguments for the
transpersonal theories of this experience.
Throughout history Buddhists
and Hindus, Muslims, Jews, Christians, and Mormons
have all reported having near-death experiences.
These experiences are similar to some of the visions
or journeys into the afterlife described in some
of the sacred texts of their religions. The descriptions
of the near-death experiences by members of these
religious groups are believed, by many, to be a
glimpse into life after death, and appear to be
consistent with each religious group's interpretation
of the afterlife. However, there are some religious
leaders who do not believe the experiencer has been
indisputably dead and returned to life when he or
she reports having a near-death experience. These
leaders interpret these experiences as being pre-death
visions of a transitory state prior to the individual's
final death and judgment.
Due to the subjective
nature of near-death experiences there can be no
conclusive proof that these experiences provide
visions of life after death: however, the reports
of out-of-body experiences, the near-death experiences
of children, and the notable changes in the near-death
experiencer's life following his or her experience
support the possibility of the validity of this
theory (Moody,
1988;
Morse, 1990;
Ring, 1985).
Because of the transpersonal nature of near-death
experiences, it is sometimes reported that it is
difficult to describe the experience in words. Near-death
experiencers report there are no appropriate words
to accurately describe their near-death experiences.
They therefore interpret the experience using words,
phrases, and metaphors reflecting their religious-cultural
backgrounds and experiences.
The near-death experiences
of individuals of various beliefs are consistent
with many religious beliefs concerning life after
death and do not compromise the foundations of their
religious traditions. The descriptions of the mystical,
depersonalization, and hyperalert constellations
of near-death experiences and the autoscopic and
transcendental grouping of these experiences appear
to closely relate to the levels of heightened sense
of consciousness associated with some religious
rituals. However, the shift from an organized religious
practice to a universalistically spiritual orientation
may have an effect on the religious practices of
some experiencers. Many choose to practice their
new sense of universal spirituality within their
earlier religions; however, many near-death experiencers
move toward a religion more congruent with their
new found knowledge, or choose to practice their
spirituality through irreligious rituals and practices.
According to Ring (1985)
many near-death experiencers attempt to incorporate
their new sense of spirituality into their lives.
This removes some of the limits of religious parochialism.
To many experiencers it becomes less important to
be a member of a specific religious group than to
practice a more spiritual life not based upon specific
religious doctrine. However, some experiencers chose
to remain or become active in an organized religion
in order to practice their new spirituality. It
is therefore important for there to be an openness
by religious groups towards individuals who report
near-death experiences and not condemnation of the
phenomenon as religious heresy. |
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| 18.
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